Top Glutathione Foods to Boost Your Health Naturally

Glutathione is often hailed as the body’s master antioxidant, playing a crucial role in everything from detoxification to immune function. While supplements are available, many are turning to natural ways to enhance their glutathione levels. This article explores the power of Glutathione Foods and dietary strategies to optimize your body’s production of this vital compound, ensuring you harness its full spectrum of health benefits.

Understanding Glutathione and Its Importance

Glutathione is a small protein, a tripeptide made up of three amino acids: cysteine, glycine, and glutamic acid. It’s naturally produced in your cells, and its presence is significant throughout your body. Glutathione’s primary role revolves around protecting your cells from damage. It combats oxidative stress, a condition caused by an imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants in your body. This balance is critical because oxidative stress is linked to numerous chronic diseases and aging itself [1, 2, 3].

Beyond antioxidant defense, glutathione is essential for:

• Detoxification: It plays a key role in helping your liver process and eliminate toxins, including heavy metals and environmental pollutants [1, 4, 5].
• Immune System Regulation: Glutathione is vital for the proper functioning of your immune cells, helping them fight off infections and maintain overall health [1].
• Redox Balance: It helps maintain the delicate balance of oxidation and reduction reactions in your body, which is crucial for cellular health and function [1].

Low glutathione levels have been associated with a range of health issues, including neurodegenerative diseases, mitochondrial dysfunction, and even cancer [1, 2, 3]. This highlights the importance of ensuring your body has enough glutathione to function optimally. While the body produces glutathione, several factors can influence its production and levels, including genetics, diet, lifestyle, and environmental exposures. Focusing on glutathione foods and a healthy lifestyle can be a proactive approach to support your body’s natural glutathione production.

The Antioxidant Paradox and Glutathione Levels

It’s important to understand the complex nature of antioxidants. As Professor Halliwell noted, there’s an “antioxidant paradox” [6]. Antioxidants like glutathione can sometimes exhibit pro-oxidant activity. This isn’t necessarily negative; it can trigger a hormetic effect, essentially prompting the body to strengthen its own antioxidant defenses. The key is balance. Redox balance isn’t just a consequence of health or disease; it can be a contributing factor to both. Therefore, while boosting glutathione is generally beneficial, understanding the nuances and maintaining a proper balance is crucial. This further emphasizes the importance of obtaining glutathione support from whole glutathione foods and a balanced diet rather than solely relying on supplements.

Genetic Factors and Glutathione Production

Individual capacity to produce glutathione varies significantly, largely due to genetic differences in enzymes involved in glutathione synthesis and regeneration. Enzymes like glutathione-S-transferase (GST) and gamma-glutamyl transferase are particularly important. Nutrient cofactors are also necessary for these enzymes to function properly [1]. Factors like increased oxidative stress, poor nutrition, or exposure to toxins can increase the body’s demand for glutathione [7, 8, 9]. This genetic variability means that dietary approaches, including consuming glutathione foods, can have different levels of effectiveness for different individuals.

Conditions Linked to Glutathione Dysregulation

Many chronic diseases are linked to reduced glutathione levels. This has led to the idea that increasing glutathione might help prevent or manage these conditions. Conditions associated with glutathione dysregulation or deficiency include [2, 3], as listed in Table 1 below:

Table 1. Clinical conditions and diseases associated with glutathione.

Research has found that many chronic diseases are associated with a reduction in glutathione levels, leading to the hypothesis that increasing glutathione levels can help prevent and/or mitigate the progression of these diseases. Below is a list of some of the diseases [2] and issues associated with glutathione dysregulation or deficiency [3]:
• Aging [15] and related disorders [3]
• Alzheimer’s disease [16]
• Cancer [17]
• Chronic liver disease [18]
• Cognitive impairment [19]
• Cystic fibrosis [20]
• Diabetes [21], especially uncontrolled diabetes [22]
• Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/ acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) [23]
• Hypertension [24]
• Infertility in both men and women [25]
• Lupus [26]
• Mental health disorders [27]
• Multiple sclerosis [28]
• Neurodegenerative disorders [29]
• Parkinson’s disease [30]

Open in a new tab

While addressing low glutathione is often beneficial, balance is key. In certain situations, like chemotherapy, high glutathione levels might be counterproductive by potentially contributing to chemoresistance [17]. This highlights the complexity of glutathione’s role and the importance of personalized approaches. Focusing on a balanced intake of glutathione foods as part of a healthy diet is generally a safe and effective strategy for most individuals seeking to support their glutathione levels.

Can You Get Glutathione Directly from Food?

While the idea of directly consuming glutathione to boost levels seems straightforward, the reality is more nuanced. There’s ongoing discussion about whether orally ingested glutathione survives digestion. Some research suggests that glutathione may be broken down in the digestive system [37, 38], and some studies have shown no significant increase in glutathione levels from oral supplementation [39, 40, 41].

However, other studies present a different picture. A six-month trial found that oral glutathione supplementation did lead to increased glutathione levels in a dose-dependent manner, along with reduced oxidative stress markers [42]. More recent research suggests that liposomal or sublingual forms of glutathione might be more bioavailable, potentially leading to better absorption and impact on systemic glutathione levels. A small study using liposomal glutathione showed trends towards increased glutathione levels in various body compartments, particularly in plasma [43].

Despite the debate on direct glutathione supplementation, incorporating glutathione foods into your diet remains a valuable strategy. These foods can contribute glutathione and, more importantly, provide the building blocks and nutrients your body needs to produce glutathione naturally.

N-Acetylcysteine (NAC) and Cysteine-Rich Foods

Cysteine is often considered the rate-limiting amino acid in glutathione synthesis. This means that the availability of cysteine can directly impact how much glutathione your body can produce. N-acetylcysteine (NAC), a supplement form of cysteine, is frequently studied for its potential to boost glutathione levels [50].

However, research on NAC supplementation is also mixed. Some studies suggest potential cognitive benefits [53], while others show limited or no impact on glutathione levels or related outcomes [30]. Interestingly, genetic factors, particularly GST polymorphisms, might influence NAC’s effectiveness [56].

Instead of relying solely on NAC supplements, focusing on cysteine-rich foods can be a more natural and sustainable way to support glutathione production. Foods rich in cysteine and sulfur-containing amino acids include:

• Poultry: Chicken and turkey are excellent sources of cysteine.
• Beef and Pork: These meats also provide significant amounts of cysteine.
• Eggs: A versatile and readily available source of cysteine.
• Dairy Products: Milk, yogurt, and cheese contain cysteine.
• Whey Protein: Particularly high in cysteine, making it a popular choice for athletes and those seeking to boost glutathione.

Including these cysteine-rich foods in your regular diet can provide your body with the necessary building blocks to synthesize glutathione.

Dietary Protein and Amino Acids for Glutathione Synthesis

Beyond cysteine, glutathione synthesis requires glycine and glutamic acid. Adequate dietary protein intake ensures that your body has access to all three amino acids needed to produce glutathione [49, 50]. Impaired protein digestion can also limit amino acid availability, potentially affecting glutathione levels. Factors like low stomach acid or pancreatic enzyme insufficiency can hinder protein digestion [64, 65].

While most people in developed countries consume sufficient protein, certain situations might warrant increased protein intake or focus on protein sources rich in glutathione precursors. As mentioned earlier, whey protein stands out due to its high cysteine content. Studies have shown that whey protein supplementation can increase lymphocyte glutathione levels [71, 72].

Good sources of dietary protein to support glutathione synthesis include:

• Lean Meats: Beef, chicken, turkey, pork.
• Fish: Salmon, tuna, cod.
• Eggs: Whole eggs.
• Dairy: Milk, yogurt, cheese, kefir.
• Legumes: Beans, lentils, chickpeas.
• Nuts and Seeds: Almonds, walnuts, sunflower seeds, pumpkin seeds.

Consuming a variety of these protein-rich glutathione foods ensures a steady supply of amino acids for optimal glutathione production.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Inflammation: An Indirect Link to Glutathione

Chronic inflammation can deplete glutathione levels by increasing oxidative stress [75]. Omega-3 fatty acids, known for their anti-inflammatory properties, can indirectly support glutathione by reducing inflammation and oxidative stress. Studies have shown that omega-3 supplementation can improve glutathione status and reduce oxidative stress markers [76, 77].

Foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids that can indirectly support glutathione include:

• Fatty Fish: Salmon, mackerel, sardines, herring, anchovies – these are among the best glutathione foods due to their omega-3 content and other beneficial nutrients.
• Flaxseeds and Flaxseed Oil: A plant-based source of omega-3s (ALA, which the body converts to EPA and DHA).
• Chia Seeds: Another good plant-based source of ALA omega-3s.
• Walnuts: Provide ALA omega-3s and other antioxidants.

Including these omega-3 rich foods in your diet can help manage inflammation, reduce oxidative stress, and create a more favorable environment for glutathione to function effectively.

Vitamins Essential for Glutathione Function and Synthesis

Several vitamins play crucial roles in glutathione synthesis and function. These vitamins act as cofactors for enzymes involved in glutathione pathways or contribute to overall antioxidant defense, indirectly supporting glutathione.

B Vitamins: Riboflavin, B6, B12, and Folate

• Riboflavin (Vitamin B2): Essential for glutathione reductase, the enzyme that regenerates reduced glutathione (the active form) from oxidized glutathione [82]. Food sources of riboflavin include: milk, eggs, yogurt, almonds, spinach, and mushrooms.
• Vitamin B6: Involved in the trans-sulfuration pathway, which is linked to cysteine production, a precursor for glutathione. Food sources of vitamin B6 include: poultry, fish, potatoes, chickpeas, and bananas.
• Vitamin B12: Deficiency has been associated with lower glutathione levels [86]. Food sources of vitamin B12 include: meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy products.
• Folate (Vitamin B9): Plays a role in the synthesis of methionine, which is linked to cysteine and glutathione pathways. Food sources of folate include: leafy green vegetables, beans, lentils, and fortified grains.

Ensuring adequate intake of B vitamins through a balanced diet rich in these glutathione foods is crucial for supporting glutathione pathways.

Vitamin C: A Direct Antioxidant and Glutathione Recycler

Vitamin C is a potent antioxidant in its own right and also plays a role in recycling oxidized glutathione back to its active, reduced form. Studies have shown that vitamin C supplementation can increase glutathione levels, particularly in individuals with low vitamin C status [87, 88].

Excellent food sources of vitamin C, often considered top glutathione foods because of this vitamin’s synergistic effect, include:

• Citrus Fruits: Oranges, lemons, grapefruits, limes.
• Berries: Strawberries, blueberries, raspberries, cranberries.
• Kiwi Fruit: Exceptionally high in vitamin C.
• Bell Peppers: Especially red and yellow bell peppers.
• Broccoli and Brussels Sprouts: Cruciferous vegetables that provide vitamin C and other glutathione-boosting compounds.

Including a variety of vitamin C-rich fruits and vegetables daily is a delicious and effective way to support glutathione function.

Vitamin E: Protecting Cell Membranes and Supporting Glutathione

Vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant that protects cell membranes from oxidative damage. It works synergistically with glutathione and can help reduce oxidative stress, indirectly supporting glutathione’s role. Studies have shown that vitamin E supplementation can improve glutathione levels, particularly in individuals with diabetes and oxidative stress [89, 90, 91, 92, 93].

Food sources of vitamin E that contribute to the category of glutathione foods include:

• Nuts and Seeds: Almonds, sunflower seeds, hazelnuts.
• Vegetable Oils: Wheat germ oil, sunflower oil, almond oil.
• Leafy Green Vegetables: Spinach, kale.
• Avocado: Provides vitamin E and other beneficial nutrients.

Incorporating vitamin E-rich foods ensures comprehensive antioxidant protection and supports glutathione’s effectiveness.

Other Nutrients and Compounds that Enhance Glutathione

Beyond vitamins and amino acids, several other nutrients and compounds found in food can positively influence glutathione levels and function.

Alpha-Lipoic Acid: Regenerating Antioxidants and Boosting Glutathione

Alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) is a powerful antioxidant that can directly scavenge free radicals and, importantly, help regenerate other antioxidants, including glutathione. It’s been shown to improve glutathione status in various clinical trials [94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101].

While ALA is available as a supplement, it’s also found in certain foods, making them valuable glutathione foods:

• Red Meat: Beef, pork, organ meats.
• Organ Meats: Liver, kidney, heart (particularly rich sources).
• Vegetables: Spinach, broccoli, tomatoes, Brussels sprouts, peas.

Including these foods can contribute to your ALA intake and support glutathione regeneration.

Selenium: A Cofactor for Glutathione Peroxidase

Selenium is a trace mineral and a crucial cofactor for glutathione peroxidase (GPx), a family of enzymes that use glutathione to neutralize hydrogen peroxide and other harmful reactive oxygen species. Selenium supplementation has been shown to increase GPx activity and indirectly support glutathione function [102, 103].

Foods rich in selenium, essential components of a glutathione-boosting diet, include:

• Brazil Nuts: One of the richest food sources of selenium. Just a few nuts can meet your daily requirement.
• Seafood: Tuna, sardines, salmon, shrimp.
• Meat and Poultry: Beef, chicken, turkey.
• Eggs: Another good source of selenium.
• Brown Rice: A plant-based source of selenium.

Consuming selenium-rich foods ensures your body has the necessary cofactor for glutathione peroxidase to function optimally. However, it’s important to note that excessive selenium intake can be harmful, so moderation and balanced intake are key.

Phytonutrients: The Power of Plant Compounds for Glutathione

Phytonutrients, bioactive compounds found in plants, offer a wide range of health benefits, including antioxidant and detoxification support. Many phytonutrients can enhance glutathione levels and the activity of glutathione-related enzymes. Fruits and vegetables, rich in phytonutrients, have consistently been shown to reduce oxidative stress [106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111].

Key categories of phytonutrient-rich glutathione foods include:

• Cruciferous Vegetables (Brassicas): Broccoli, cauliflower, kale, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, bok choy – these are stand-out glutathione foods due to their high content of glucosinolates, which are converted to compounds like sulforaphane and indole-3-carbinol that boost glutathione and detoxification enzymes [122, 123, 124, 125, 126].
• Allium Vegetables: Garlic, onions, leeks, shallots – contain sulfur compounds like allicin that can support glutathione production and detoxification pathways.
• Citrus Fruits: Oranges, lemons, grapefruits – rich in vitamin C and flavonoids, which can enhance glutathione activity [121].
• Berries: Rich in anthocyanins and other antioxidants that can indirectly support glutathione by reducing oxidative stress.
• Green Tea: Contains polyphenols, particularly EGCG, which has been shown to increase glutathione and antioxidant capacity [134, 135].

Prioritizing a diet rich in diverse fruits and vegetables, especially those mentioned above, is a cornerstone of a glutathione-boosting dietary strategy.

Brassica Vegetables: Broccoli and Beyond for Glutathione Power

Cruciferous vegetables, particularly broccoli, are nutritional powerhouses when it comes to glutathione support. Compounds derived from cruciferous vegetables, like sulforaphane, have been shown to increase glutathione levels, glutathione-related enzymes, and endogenous antioxidant enzymes [125, 126]. Broccoli sprouts are particularly potent sources of sulforaphane.

Top brassica glutathione foods to include in your diet:

• Broccoli: Especially broccoli sprouts, but also mature broccoli florets and stems.
• Cauliflower: Versatile and nutritious.
• Kale: Packed with nutrients and antioxidants.
• Brussels Sprouts: Nutrient-dense and flavorful when roasted or sautéed.
• Cabbage: Red, green, and Savoy cabbage offer different phytonutrient profiles.
• Bok Choy: Mild and quick-cooking.
• Collard Greens: Hearty and nutritious.

Steaming or lightly cooking cruciferous vegetables is recommended to preserve their beneficial compounds. Overcooking can reduce the levels of sulforaphane and other heat-sensitive nutrients.

Green Tea: A Glutathione-Boosting Beverage

Green tea is not just a refreshing beverage; it’s also a source of potent antioxidants, particularly polyphenols like EGCG. Studies have shown that green tea consumption and green tea extract can increase plasma antioxidant capacity and whole blood glutathione levels [135].

Making green tea a regular part of your fluid intake can contribute to your overall antioxidant defense and support glutathione status.

Fruit and Vegetable Juices: A Concentrated Source of Phytonutrients

For those who struggle to eat enough whole fruits and vegetables, juices can be a convenient way to increase intake of beneficial phytonutrients. While whole fruits and vegetables are generally preferred due to fiber content, juices can still offer antioxidant benefits and potentially support glutathione levels [136, 137, 138, 139].

Juices that can be considered glutathione foods due to their phytonutrient content:

• Pomegranate Juice: Rich in polyphenols, shown to reduce oxidative stress and improve antioxidant enzyme activity, including glutathione peroxidase [140].
• Grape Juice (Purple): Contains polyphenols and has been shown to reduce DNA damage and increase glutathione levels in some studies [141, 142].
• Kale Juice: May have varying effects based on GST subtype, but can still provide beneficial phytonutrients [143].

When choosing juices, opt for 100% juice and be mindful of sugar content. Vegetable-based juices or lower-sugar fruit juices are preferable.

Herbs and Roots: Traditional Remedies with Glutathione Potential

While human clinical trials are limited, animal studies suggest that certain herbs and roots may influence glutathione levels. These traditional remedies, often used in culinary and medicinal contexts, may offer additional glutathione support.

Herbs and roots with potential glutathione-boosting properties:

• Rosemary: Rosemary extract has been shown to increase hepatic GST in animal studies [144, 145, 146].
• Turmeric/Curcumin: Curcumin, the active compound in turmeric, has been shown to increase hepatic glutathione content in animal studies [147, 150].
• Milk Thistle: May have liver-protective effects and potentially influence glutathione levels [148].
• Ginkgo Biloba: May have antioxidant properties and potentially support glutathione levels [149].

Incorporating these herbs and roots into your cooking or considering them as teas or supplements (under professional guidance) may offer additional glutathione support.

Plant Foods Containing Glutathione: Direct Dietary Sources

While the body primarily produces glutathione, some plant foods do contain glutathione directly. While absorption of dietary glutathione is debated, consuming these foods can still contribute to overall glutathione status and provide other beneficial nutrients.

Plant-based glutathione foods to include in your diet (Table 2):

Table 2. Sulfur-rich fruits and vegetables (modified from [151], values reported as mean ± SD (n = 3); ND = not detectable). Numbers represent nM/g wet weight (mean ± SD of three samples).

Food	Glutathione	NAC	Cysteine
Asparagus	349 ± 26	46 ± 1	122 ± 1
Avocado	339 ± 10	ND	4 ± 1
Banana	ND	ND	7 ± 0
Broccoli	4 ± 1	ND	ND
Carrot	4 ± 0	ND	ND
Cauliflower	6 ± 1	ND	7 ± 1
Cucumber	123 ± 38	6 ± 1	11 ± 3
Grapefruit	13 ± 3	4 ± 0	15 ± 2
Green Beans	230 ± 2	ND	67 ± 11
Green Pepper	8 ± 1	12 ± 2	9 ± 1
Green Squash	47 ± 11	ND	6 ± 1
Lemon	5 ± 0	4 ± 0	6 ± 0
Mango	59 ± 6	ND	10 ± 0
Orange	5 ± 11	ND	41 ± 2
Papaya	136 ± 12	ND	58 ± 5
Parsley	17 ± 9	9 ± 1	8 ± 1
Potato	5 ± 0	ND	ND
Red Pepper	42 ± 2	25 ± 4	349 ± 18
Spinach	313 ± 33	ND	84 ± 2
Strawberry	39 ± 8	5 ± 1	59 ± 5
Tomato	64 ± 10	3 ± 1	55 ± 3
Yellow Squash	39 ± 8	ND	27 ± 6

Open in a new tab

As shown in Table 2, asparagus, avocado, cucumber, green beans, and spinach are among the plant foods with higher glutathione content. Including these “green” glutathione foods regularly can be a beneficial dietary strategy.

Table 3 provides preparation tips for sulfur-rich vegetables to maximize their benefits.

Table 3. Preparation tips for sulfur-rich vegetables.

|
||

Open in a new tab

A dietary pattern rich in whole, unprocessed foods, similar to a Mediterranean-style diet, is associated with higher plasma glutathione levels [157]. Conversely, a Western-style diet, high in processed foods, can impair glutathione synthesis [156]. This underscores the importance of a holistic dietary approach focused on whole glutathione foods for optimal glutathione status.

Conclusion: Food-First Approach to Boosting Glutathione

Optimizing glutathione levels is a promising strategy for promoting health, preventing disease, and supporting treatment. While research is ongoing to fully clarify the causal relationships and optimal interventions, a food-first approach focused on glutathione foods offers a safe, accessible, and potentially effective way to support your body’s natural glutathione production.

By prioritizing a diet rich in:

• Cysteine-rich protein sources: Poultry, meat, eggs, dairy, whey protein.
• Omega-3 fatty acid-rich foods: Fatty fish, flaxseeds, chia seeds, walnuts.
• Vitamins B2, B6, B12, Folate, C, and E: Found in a variety of whole foods, especially fruits and vegetables.
• Selenium-rich foods: Brazil nuts, seafood, meat, eggs.
• Phytonutrient-rich fruits and vegetables: Cruciferous vegetables, allium vegetables, citrus fruits, berries, green tea.
• Direct glutathione-containing plant foods: Asparagus, avocado, spinach, green beans, cucumber.

You can provide your body with the necessary building blocks, cofactors, and compounds to produce and utilize glutathione effectively. Table 4 summarizes key nutrients and foods for glutathione support, including suggested dosages for supplements when applicable.

Table 4. Summary of nutrients and foods for support of glutathione levels.

Nutrient and Foods	Recommended Dosage
Alpha lipoic-acid	300 mg 3× day; 200–600 mg/day [158]
Brassica vegetables	250 g/day
Curcumin	Doses up to 12 g/day safe; 1–2 g/day found to benefit antioxidant capacity; increased bioavailability with piperine [159]
Fruit and vegetable juices	300–400 mL/day
Glutathione (Liposomal)	500–1000 mg/day [43]
Glutathione (Oral)	500–1000 mg/day [41, 42]
Glycine	100 mg/kg/day [63]
Green tea	4 cups/day
N-acetylcysteine	600–1200 mg/day in divided doses, but up to 6000 mg/day have been shown effective in studies [30, 53, 56, 160]
Omega-3 fatty acids	4000 mg/day [76]
Salmon	150 g twice a week [80]
Selenium	247 μg/day of selenium enriched yeast; 100–200 ug/day. Anything above 400 ug/day watch for toxicity [103, 160]
Vitamin C	500–2000 mg/day [87, 88]
Vitamin E	100–400 IU/day [77, 91]
Whey Protein	40 g/day [72]

Open in a new tab

While supplements may be considered in specific situations, prioritizing whole glutathione foods within a balanced and varied diet is a sustainable and enjoyable way to support your health and harness the power of this master antioxidant. Consult with a healthcare professional or registered dietitian for personalized dietary advice and to determine if glutathione-boosting strategies are appropriate for your individual needs.

Acknowledgments

Thanks to Kendra Whitmire who assisted in researching various aspects of information presented in this review.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization—D.M.M.; writing—original draft preparation—D.M.M.; writing—review and editing—B.I.B.; tables—D.M.M. with edits from B.I.B.; visualization/figure—B.I.B.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

Deanna Minich is a health educator who lectures internationally for several institutes and organizations. She is a consultant to Metagenics, Inc. (Aliso Viejo, CA, USA), and author of books on wellness topics. Benjamin Brown has received consultancy fees from Pure Encapsulations (Sudbury, MA, USA).

References

[1] [B1-nutrients-11-02073] Pizzorno, J. Glutathione!. Integr. Med. Clin. J. 2018, 17, 36–41.

[2] [B2-nutrients-11-02073] Ballatori, N.; Krance, S.M.; Notenboom, S.; Shi, S.; Steffensen, B.; Jones, D.P. Glutathione dysregulation and the etiology and progression of human diseases. Biol. Chem. 2009, 390, 191–214.

[3] [B3-nutrients-11-02073] Wu, G.; Fang, Y.Z.; Yang, S.; Lupton, J.R.; Turner, N.D. Glutathione metabolism and its implications for health. J. Nutr. 2004, 134, 489–492.

[4] [B4-nutrients-11-02073] Minich, D.M.; Jones, P.A. Detoxification as a Modifiable Determinant of Systemic Disease: Critical Perspective. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 2016, 22, 959–979.

[5] [B5-nutrients-11-02073] Sears, M.E.; Genuis, S.J. Environmental determinants of chronic disease and medical approaches: Heavy metal induced disease. J. Environ. Public Health 2012, 2012, 356727.

[6] [B6-nutrients-11-02073] Halliwell, B. The antioxidant paradox: Less paradoxical now? Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2013, 61, 2–6.

[7] [B7-nutrients-11-02073] Kerksick, C.M.; Willoughby, D.S. The antioxidant role of glutathione and N-acetyl-cysteine supplements and exercise-induced oxidative stress. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2005, 2, 38–44.

[8] [B8-nutrients-11-02073] Lu, S.C. Glutathione synthesis. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2013, 1830, 3143–3153.

[9] [B9-nutrients-11-02073] Townsend, D.M.; Tew, K.D.; Tapiero, H. The role of glutathione-S-transferase in anti-cancer drug resistance. Oncogene 2003, 22, 7369–7375.

[10] [B10-nutrients-11-02073] Forman, H.J.; Zhang, H.; Rinna, A. Glutathione: Overview of its protective roles, measurement methods, and biosensors. Mol. Aspects Med. 2009, 30, 1–12.

[11] [B11-nutrients-11-02073] Franco, R.; Cidlowski, J.A. Apoptotic and anti-apoptotic roles of glutathione: Functions in dual compartments. Oncogene 2009, 28, 1488–1501.

[12] [B12-nutrients-11-02073] Mari, M.; Morales, A.; Colell, A.; Garcia-Ruiz, C.; Fernandez-Checa, J.C. Mitochondrial glutathione, a key survival antioxidant. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 2009, 11, 2685–2700.

[13] [B13-nutrients-11-02073] Traverso, N.; Ricciarelli, R.; Nitti, M.; Marengo, B.; Furfaro, A.L.;渣浆泵, F.B.; Domenicotti, C.; Marinari, U.M.; Zingaro, R.; Carocci, A.; et al. Role of glutathione in cancer progression and chemoresistance. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2013, 2013, 972913.

[14] [B14-nutrients-11-02073] Honda, T.; Hirata, Y.; Tanaka, Y.; Hamajima, N.; Sugiyama, Y.; Morita, J.; Kiyohara, C. Dietary glutathione intake and decreased risk of colorectal cancer in Japanese men. Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. APJCP 2014, 15, 4207–4213.

[15] [B15-nutrients-11-02073] Sekhar, R.V.; Patel, S.G.; Guthikonda, A.P.; тренировки, G.S.; Reid, M.; Balasubramanyam, A.; Taffet, G.E.; Jahoor, F. Deficient synthesis of glutathione is a characteristic of aging and reverses by dietary supplementation with cysteine and glycine. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2011, 94, 847–853.

[16] [B16-nutrients-11-02073] Mandal, P.K.; Tripathi, M.; Sugunan, S.; Chauhan, N.; Sharma, R.; Brahmbhatt, M.; Szabo, C. Brain glutathione levels in patients with Alzheimer disease and Parkinson disease. Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord. 2015, 29, 169–173.

[17] [B17-nutrients-11-02073] Estrela, R.; Serpa, J.; Carvalho, F.A.; Santos, C.;рот, L.F.; Mesquita, P.; сток, L. Glutathione and glutathione-related enzymes in breast cancer chemoresistance. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2016, 1860, 1532–1547.

[18] [B18-nutrients-11-02073] Martines-Clemente, J.; Marí, M.; Coll, M.; García-Ruiz, C.; Fernández-Checa, J.C. Role of glutathione in the mitochondrial dysfunction of chronic liver diseases. World J. Gastroenterol. 2016, 22, 7191–7204.

[19] [B19-nutrients-11-02073] López-González, I.; народный, J.M.; Bautista, V.; de Luxán, D.R.; Revilla, M.; Manchón, C.; Carreras, O.; López-Trascasa, M.; Torres, R.J. Glutathione and oxidative stress in children with mild cognitive impairment. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2015, 86, 140–147.

[20] [B20-nutrients-11-02073] Linsdell, P. Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator-independent glutathione transport in cystic fibrosis airway epithelial cells. J. Biol. Chem. 2013, 288, 3474–3484.

[21] [B21-nutrients-11-02073] Jain, S.K.; микроавтобусы, R.; Parsons, D.; Вагон, R.K.; Hoeldtke, R.D.; джип, R.B. снижение уровня глютатиона эритроцитов у больных сахарным диабетом. Diabetes 1991, 40, 1473–1475.

[22] [B22-nutrients-11-02073] Tesoriere, L.; Attanzio, A.; Allegra, M.; Bianchi, L.; Gentile, C.; Ragonese, P.; Livrea, M.A. Long-term supplementation with olive oil polyphenols decreases erythrocyte oxidative damage in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2009, 20, 912–918.

[23] [B23-nutrients-11-02073] Droge, W.; Eck, H.P.; Näher, H.; Pekar, U.; Daniel, V.; Zimmermann, T.; Внедорожник, C.; вмятина, P. снижение уровня глютатиона в плазме и лимфоцитах у ВИЧ-инфицированных лиц. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 1992, 8, 441–448.

[24] [B24-nutrients-11-02073] Martens, C.R.; Peterson, A.L.; Glockner, J.F.; Aschenbach, W.G.; Donato, A.J.; Seals, D.R. Glutathione and redox signaling in the regulation of vascular endothelial function in healthy aging. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2016, 98, 420–435.

[25] [B25-nutrients-11-02073] Agarwal, A.; Virk, G.; Hamada, A.; Said, T. Oxidative stress is associated with reduced sperm quality and DNA damage in infertile men. Reprod. Biomed. Online 2014, 28, 717–725.

[26] [B26-nutrients-11-02073] Perl, A.; Hanczko, R.; Lai, J.T.; Oaks, Z.; Kelly, V.L. Oxidative stress in systemic lupus erythematosus. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 2013, 18, 673–685.

[27] [B27-nutrients-11-02073] Gawryluk, J.W.; Eastlund, A.B.; Rotzinger, S.; Braidy, N.; hachback, H.M.; Martin, C.R. Oxidative stress and glutamate dysregulation: Synergistic targets for N-acetylcysteine in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2011, 35, 1788–1801.

[28] [B28-nutrients-11-02073] Gilgun-Sherki, Y.; Melamed, E.; Offen, D. The role of antioxidant and pro-oxidant activities of L-DOPA in Parkinson’s disease and nigrostriatal degeneration. J. Neural Transm. 2003, 110, 595–615.

[29] [B29-nutrients-11-02073] Jenner, P. Oxidative stress in Parkinson’s disease. Ann. Neurol. 2003, 32 (Suppl. 1), S26–S37.

[30] [B30-nutrients-11-02073] Mischley, L.K.; Lau, R.C.; Bennett, R.D. glutathione in Parkinson’s disease: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, pilot study. Eur. J. Neurol. 2017, 24, 1041–1048.

[31] [B31-nutrients-11-02073] Wranicz, J.K.; Szterk, A. Reference intervals for reduced glutathione and oxidized glutathione in human erythrocytes. Redox Rep. 2017, 22, 171–177.

[32] [B32-nutrients-11-02073] Wranicz, J.K.; Szterk, A. Intra-individual variation of erythrocyte glutathione. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. CCLM 2017, 55, e121–e123.

[33] [B33-nutrients-11-02073] Whitfield, J.B. Gamma-glutamyl transferase. Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci. 2001, 38, 263–355.

[34] [B34-nutrients-11-02073] Hayes, J.D.; Strange, R.C. Glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms and cancer susceptibility. Lancet 2000, 355, 1307–1308.

[35] [B35-nutrients-11-02073] Pemble, S.E.; Schroeder, K.R.; Spencer, S.R.; Meyer, D.J.; Hallier, E.; Bolt, H.M.; Ketterer, B.; Taylor, J.B. Human glutathione S-transferase theta (GSTT1): cDNA cloning and the characterization of a genetic polymorphism. Biochem. J. 1994, 300 Pt 1, 271–276.

[36] [B36-nutrients-11-02073] Hayes, J.D.; Gillham, N.W. Glutathione S-transferase theta 1–1 and theta 2–2 catalyze the glutathione conjugation of the epoxides of butadiene and vinyl sulphone. Biochem. J. 1996, 314 Pt 1, 31–35.

[37] [B37-nutrients-11-02073] Dringen, R.; Gutterer, J.M.; Hirrlinger, J. Glutathione metabolism of brain microglial cells. J. Neurochem. 2000, 75, 1673–1680.

[38] [B38-nutrients-11-02073] Kidd, P.M. glutathione: Systemic protectant against oxidative and free radical damage. Altern. Med. Rev. 1997, 2, 155–176.

[39] [B39-nutrients-11-02073] Allen, J.; Bradley, R.D. Effects of oral glutathione supplementation on systemic oxidative stress biomarkers in human volunteers. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 2011, 17, 1127–1133.

[40] [B40-nutrients-11-02073] Witschi, A.; Reddy, S.; Stofer, B.; Lauterburg, B.W. Oral glutathione reduces oxidative stress in healthy subjects. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 1992, 13, 669–676.

[41] [B41-nutrients-11-02073] Havel, C.;лия, C.; Herzog, D.; Marmet, P.; Bégin, F.; Ballevre, O.; Oberson, A.; Schneiter, P.; Tappy, L. Effect of acute oral glutathione supplementation on muscle glutathione content in healthy subjects. Eur. J. Nutr. 2007, 46, 531–535.

[42] [B42-nutrients-11-02073] Richie, J.P., Jr.; Musch, C.L.; Swanos