My initial encounter with Korea Food in Seoul left me underwhelmed. Eager to experience the renowned Korean barbecue, I visited a popular spot in Hongdae, a neighborhood frequently recommended by fellow Korean adoptees. While the meat itself was satisfactory (emphasizing its Canadian origin over American, as pointed out by our server), the array of panchan, or side dishes, was limited and lacked excitement. Perhaps, I mused, my palate had been elevated by previous visits to Korea, where I had explored the East Coast, Jeju Island, and spent time with my family.
Hailing from rural North Gyeongsang province, my family’s table was always a vibrant spread of seven to ten types of homemade panchan. Regional specialties like Jeju black pig, fresh catches from the Donghae and Pohang seas, and locally-raised beef were staples. Upon arriving in Seoul, I struggled to reconcile my friends’ enthusiastic descriptions of the city’s culinary scene with my own experience. It simply didn’t align with my established understanding of authentic Korea food.
This seemingly unremarkable Seoul restaurant experience could be attributed to various factors. However, as I delved deeper into the economics of food in Korea, I began to suspect that my mediocre meal was symptomatic of a broader issue, extending beyond a single chef’s off night.
In recent years, global fascination with Korea food has surged dramatically. This growing interest is evident in phenomena like Maangchi, a self-taught Korean chef who became a YouTube sensation with her accessible recipes, and “Kimchi Chronicles,” a public television series that explored Korean cuisine from an American perspective. The Korean government has strategically invested in initiatives like “Kimchi Chronicles” to promote Korea food internationally, successfully introducing the distinctive flavors of Korean cuisine to a global audience, many of whom were previously unfamiliar with kimchi.
Seoul has emerged as a must-visit destination for global food enthusiasts, drawn to the promise of authentic Korea food. However, the paradox of this globalization is that finding a truly representative Korean meal in Seoul is increasingly challenging. A significant portion of the ingredients used in Korea food today are not domestically sourced. Chicken often comes from the Philippines, beef from Australia or the United States, soybeans from Argentina, and wheat from Russia. The reality is, much of what is presented as Korea food in Korea today has lost its intrinsic Korean roots.
South Korea’s dependence on imported ingredients is starkly illustrated by its low food self-sufficiency rate. Among the 34 member nations of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), a group of powerful economies, South Korea ranks alarmingly low, achieving an overall food self-sufficiency rate of only around 50 percent. This “self-sufficiency” metric reflects a nation’s capacity to meet its own food needs through domestic production. The situation becomes more critical when focusing solely on grains, essential staples like rice, wheat, and barley. While the grain self-sufficiency rate averages 26 percent, excluding rice reveals a drastic drop to a mere six percent.
While some might dismiss low self-sufficiency as inconsequential in a globalized food market, as long as imports are readily available, this heavy reliance on foreign food sources presents significant vulnerabilities for South Korean society and its economy. The global food crisis of 2007 exposed Korea’s precarious food security, marked by sharp price spikes in basic food items like noodles. Food prices are a major contributor to consumer price inflation, which in turn negatively impacts Korea’s overall economic stability and household budgets. This volatility underscores the importance of food security for national economic well-being, especially in a country deeply rooted in Korea food culture.
Recognizing the critical implications of food security, the Korean government has allocated substantial funds to secure overseas food supplies over the coming decade. However, a crucial question remains: what about Korean agriculture itself? Why is South Korea, a nation among the world’s wealthiest, struggling to feed its own population? Is it a matter of insufficient productivity among Korean farmers, or are there deeper systemic issues at play hindering the growth of Korea food production?
My research into this topic, conducted as part of my Ph.D. studies, revealed that indeed, more profound forces are at work. Complex global economic dynamics are collectively making South Korea an increasingly challenging and expensive environment for farming. The “modernization” of the Korean economy, characterized by the dismantling of trade and economic barriers, has disproportionately benefited urban centers while leaving rural areas behind. Many rural communities are grappling with poverty and economic stagnation. Development policies that have historically favored export-oriented industries and trade have inadvertently placed Korean agriculture in a state of crisis, threatening the very foundation of Korea food traditions.
In response to these challenges, Korean farmers have not remained passive victims of policy. They have actively protested the trajectory of Korean food and agricultural policy, and, more importantly, they have developed a compelling alternative approach. This movement champions healthy and sustainable food systems that benefit both consumers and producers. Korean farmers have evolved into proactive advocates for their livelihoods and for Korea food sovereignty, a role unprecedented in the nation’s food economics history. They are increasingly vocal about food self-sufficiency, consumer protection, and their fundamental right to economic survival. This represents a significant and evolving paradigm shift in the landscape of Korea food.
To amplify this movement, I collaborated with Daniel Gray, a food critic and fellow Korean adoptee residing in Seoul, to organize a Food Sovereignty Tour. Our shared vision is that the Food Sovereignty Tour, and similar initiatives, will provide a global platform and bolster support for Koreans striving to strengthen their local economies and reclaim control over their food sources, ensuring the future of authentic Korea food.
Farmers Under Pressure: The Roots of the Crisis in Korea Food Production
Korean agriculture has faced a persistent crisis since the setbacks of Park Chung Hee’s Rural Infrastructure program, known as the New Community Movement or Saemaeul Undong, in the 1980s. By the mid-1980s, many Korean farmers found themselves burdened by severe debt after significant investments in infrastructure and agricultural inputs. The situation worsened following the 1997 Asian financial crisis, which led to the liberalization of the agricultural sector as part of structural adjustment policies imposed by international financial institutions. This liberalization further exposed Korean farmers to global market pressures, impacting the production of Korea food ingredients.
By the late 1990s, Korean farmers began to express their discontent with domestic agricultural policies on the international stage, most notably during the 2003 World Trade Organization (WTO) negotiations in Cancun, Mexico. The conference was marked by a tragic event when farmer Lee Kyung-hae, in a desperate act of protest, climbed the fence surrounding the WTO negotiation complex and fatally stabbed himself. He wore a sign around his neck that poignantly stated, “WTO kills farmers,” aiming to raise global awareness about the plight of small farmers, not only in Korea but worldwide. Despite Lee’s sacrifice, the fundamental challenges persist. Farm debt continues to rise, and household incomes in rural areas remain significantly lower compared to urban centers, threatening the economic viability of Korea food production at its source.
The crisis confronting Korean farmers and the nation’s food security is fundamentally a structural issue rooted in domestic policies that prioritize industry and trade over agriculture and food self-sufficiency. This policy orientation is intrinsically linked to the broader forces of economic globalization. The ongoing neglect of Korean agriculture by the government is further evidenced by the Free Trade Agreement (FTA) between the U.S. and Korea, ratified by the Korean Assembly in November 2011. The ratification process was deeply contentious and ultimately succeeded only due to the then-ruling conservative Grand National Party’s ability to unilaterally push through the agreement, despite strong opposition from the Democratic Party. This FTA has significant implications for the future of Korea food.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture projects that the FTA will position Korea as the single most important agricultural export market for U.S. agriculture. Korean food producers and farmers understandably fear that the FTA will deliver another crippling blow to Korean agriculture, making it even harder to compete and produce core ingredients for Korea food. Meanwhile, Korean farmers and rural communities continue to endure severe economic hardship. The pressure on farmland is intensifying from various sources, notably the controversial Four Rivers Restoration project, which has destroyed vast tracts of fertile farmland along riverbanks, further undermining the capacity for domestic Korea food production.
An illustrative example of how even ostensibly “green” policies can devastate farming areas is the organic farming community in Paldang, located an hour’s drive east of Seoul. Situated on the banks of the Han River and the Paldang reservoir, a critical water source for Seoul, the Paldang community pioneered organic farming in the late 1990s as part of a commitment to protect the Han River’s water quality. These farmers became key suppliers of ingredients for Korea food.
Paldang farmers are responsible for up to 80 percent of all organic produce sold in Seoul, a testament to their success in sustainable agriculture and their contribution to the Korea food supply chain. However, as a consequence of the Four Rivers Restoration Project, these farmers are facing eviction to make way for recreational facilities for city residents, including a bike path traversing what was once thriving organic farmland. Paldang residents, environmental non-governmental organizations, and religious groups have actively resisted these evictions. The International Federation of Organic Farming Movements (IFOAM) even threatened to relocate its 2011 world congress from Korea if the evictions persisted. Despite these protests, the evictions proceeded, highlighting the ongoing challenges to preserving farmland for Korea food production.
Paldang is not an isolated case. Over the past three decades, South Korea has witnessed a reduction of nearly one million acres of agricultural land due to urban and industrial expansion. Intriguingly, this figure closely approximates the 900,000 acres of farmland the government plans to develop overseas in developing countries to compensate for the shortfall in domestic food production, essentially outsourcing the base of Korea food. Thus, while Korean farmers struggle to secure land and compete with subsidized food imports, the government is simultaneously supporting Korean corporations in acquiring farmland abroad to grow and raise food for import back to South Korea. This creates a complex and challenging situation for the future of Korea food and its local producers.
Food Sovereignty: Reclaiming Control over Korea Food Systems
In essence, the Korean government is pursuing a dual strategy regarding food security: securing food supplies internationally through farmland investments in developing countries and through free trade agreements with major economies like the U.S., the European Union (EU), and Australia. Simultaneously, domestic policies continue to marginalize Korean farmers by reducing available farmland and allowing unfair competition against Korean produce and livestock, impacting the foundation of Korea food. For over a decade, national farmers’ movements, such as the Korean Peasants League (KPL) and the Korean Women’s Peasants Association (KWPA), have actively challenged this structural injustice through protests in Korea, advocacy at the National Assembly, engagement with successive governments, and international lobbying at WTO negotiations, fighting to protect the future of Korea food and local agriculture.
However, the Korean farmers’ movements are not solely focused on protest; they are also proactively constructing an alternative food system within Korea. This system prioritizes local, healthy, environmentally sustainable, and socially just food production and consumption, aiming to revitalize Korea food from the ground up. Since 2007, the KPL and KWPA have championed the concept of “food sovereignty.” They advocate for its adoption as the overarching paradigm for Korean food and agriculture policy, ensuring the future of authentic Korea food. Food sovereignty emphasizes the importance of promoting local and healthy food systems and redefining the relationship between producers and consumers. The goal is to re-localize the food economy, reducing Korean consumers’ dependence on corporate-controlled food systems and large-scale industrial agriculture, and fostering a more resilient and sustainable Korea food landscape.
During 2011, as part of my research, I had the privilege of visiting numerous local food projects initiated and supported by the KPL and KWPA across South Korea, from Gangwon province in the north to Jeju Island in the south. These visits rekindled my passion for Korea food and offered a profoundly insightful experience. Meeting farmers, hearing their personal narratives about life in rural Korea, and witnessing their dedication to promoting healthy and socially just food production and consumption was truly eye-opening. This vibrant movement within modern Korea often remains unseen by foreign visitors, yet it is crucial to understanding the future of Korea food.
In the city of Chuncheon, I encountered cattle farmers who are directly marketing their products locally through their own cooperative butcher shop and restaurant. While savoring delicious yook hwe (Korean raw beef salad) at their restaurant, I spoke with the founder, Ki Wan Chun. He explained his motivation for establishing a farmer-owned cooperative that controls every stage of meat production, from raising cattle to processing and distribution, ensuring the quality of Korea food ingredients.
Chun, who owns approximately 20 cows on a farm just outside Chuncheon, emphasized that selling beef through their cooperative ensures stable and fair incomes for local farmers while providing local consumers with high-quality, affordable beef for their Korea food dishes. He stressed that direct farmer-consumer connections are essential to challenge corporate dominance in the food system and to ensure the authenticity of Korea food. The Chuncheon cooperative has become a resounding success. Returning later that day, I found the restaurant bustling with local patrons enjoying local beef dishes and homemade panchan, a testament to the community’s support for local Korea food initiatives.
In North Gyeongsang province, I met women farmers who have established their own community-supported agriculture (CSA) project, delivering fresh organic vegetables, eggs, tofu, and kimchi directly to local consumers in the nearby city of Sangju. On the day of my visit, the women were gathered in their new processing facility, packing weekly boxes for delivery. That evening, Sangju residents would receive their fresh, locally-sourced produce, vital ingredients for authentic Korea food. After packing, we shared local makgeolli (rice liquor) and enjoyed a meal prepared by one of the farmers, showcasing the deliciousness of locally produced Korea food.
On Jeju Island, I spoke with farmers who are committed to seed saving and advocating for the use of locally produced food in the provincial school lunch program, ensuring that future generations appreciate Korea food made with local ingredients. Collaborating with researchers from Jeju National University, this energetic group of farmers has launched a local farmers’ market and a certification program for restaurants that commit to sourcing at least 70 percent of their food from local suppliers, promoting the consumption of Korea food made with Jeju ingredients.
Jakyung Kim, a young professor from Jeju National University, explained that she initiated this local food initiative upon returning to Jeju after studying in Japan. She found it surprisingly difficult to find restaurants serving locally-produced food, even on an island with a high proportion of farmers. She explained that while Jeju Island boasts a significant farming population, much of the production and distribution is controlled by mainland companies, leaving limited profits for the local economy and hindering the development of a robust Korea food sector on the island. Through the local food initiative, she aims to empower local farmers and restaurateurs to revitalize the local economy and encourage higher-value food processing on Jeju, strengthening the island’s contribution to Korea food culture.
These diverse projects, though unique in their specifics, share a common goal: to empower local food producers and consumers economically, ensuring the future of authentic Korea food. They foster a sense of ownership and control among participants, grounded in the understanding that food tastes best when grown and raised locally by farmers deeply connected to their land and environment, preserving the essence of Korea food. In recent years, these initiatives have demonstrated the potential for Korean farmers and food visionaries, in partnership with consumers, to build a national food system that values farmers, respects the environment, and upholds the high quality and deliciousness of Korea food.
Food Sovereignty Tour Korea: Experiencing Sustainable Korea Food Firsthand
Returning to Seoul, I reconnected with Daniel Gray, a fellow Korean adoptee and co-founder of O’ngo Food, an organization dedicated to promoting high-quality cuisine in Korea and showcasing the best of Korea food. His food tours in Seoul are a popular attraction for tourists seeking authentic Korean culinary experiences, and his food blog, SeoulEats.com, is a leading English-language resource for restaurant reviews and food-related news in Seoul, guiding visitors to the best Korea food experiences.
Daniel broadened my perspective on the exceptional food experiences available in Seoul, revealing hidden gems where genuinely good Korea food can be found. He emphasized that discovering these places requires insider knowledge and effort, but the reward is a truly authentic taste of Korea food. Over homemade makgeolli and kimchi at a small restaurant in Insadong, a historic neighborhood, we conceived the idea of making these authentic Korea food experiences more accessible.
This conversation led to the development of the South Korea Food Sovereignty Tour, a nine-day journey launched in May 2012. The tour was designed to immerse participants in the rural regions of Korea where I had encountered farmers building the inspiring local markets described earlier, offering a firsthand experience of sustainable Korea food production. Organized in collaboration with Food Sovereignty Tours (a partnership between the Food First Institute for Food and Development Policy and Global Exchange’s Reality Tours), advocacy groups KPL and KWPA, and Daniel Gray’s tour organization O’ngo Food, our aim was to promote a deeper understanding of the driving forces behind South Korea’s local food movement and its importance to the future of Korea food.
The broader objective of the tour is to introduce participants to locally-produced Korea food and to visit sites that are significant to the food sovereignty movement. This immersive experience fosters an appreciation for the crucial role of farmers and peasants in Korean society over the past century, particularly their contributions to democracy and sustainability movements, and to the preservation of Korea food culture.
The tour, which I coordinate, is also designed to be enjoyable and satisfying for food enthusiasts. It offers unique dining experiences throughout the nine days, showcasing the exceptional flavors and quality of fresh, local Korea food.
Addressing the challenges posed by the corporate food system is a formidable task. However, Korean farmers have demonstrated remarkable courage and determination in confronting the structural injustices within the Korean food system and in championing the cause of authentic Korea food. Through the Korean Food Sovereignty Tours, we strive to contribute to promoting South Koreans’ fundamental right to maintain their local food economy, benefiting farmers, producers, distributors, and all South Koreans, and ensuring the continued vibrancy of Korea food traditions. We also hope to contribute to the resurgence of truly delicious and healthy Korea food in South Korea.
The inaugural tour took place from May 10-19, 2012. For further information, please visit www.foodsovereigntytours.org and www.ongofood.com.
*Anders Riel Müller is a Research Fellow with Food First and the Korea Policy Institute. He is currently writing his PhD dissertation on Korean food and agriculture policy.
