Imagine a world without the comforting presence of potatoes, the tangy zest of tomatoes, or the pervasive sweetness of sugar and salt that seasons our modern lives. For many of us, this is a difficult task. Yet, for the people inhabiting Medieval Europe, this was their everyday reality. The diet during the Middle Ages was markedly different from our contemporary culinary landscape. Staple foods, cooking methods, and the very perception of food itself were, unsurprisingly, distinct a millennium ago. Grains like spelt and barley reigned supreme, while flavors we now take for granted, such as intense sweetness, saltiness, and exotic spices, were often rare and expensive, especially for the common person. However, to assume that medieval food was bland or uninteresting would be a mistake. Despite the limited availability of detailed recipes from the era, the medieval world appears to have been rich in flavors, and food played a fascinating and crucial role in society, culture, religion, and economics.
Communal eating and grand feasts were integral to medieval life, serving as vital social occasions. These gatherings provided opportunities for lively conversation, social bonding, and the forging of new relationships. Beyond mere sustenance, food in the Middle Ages held significant cultural weight. Perhaps the most prominent example of this, particularly within Christian society, was the Eucharistic Mass. This central religious ceremony involved the ritual blessing and distribution of bread and wine by the clergy to the congregation. This bread and wine were believed to transform into the body and blood of Jesus Christ, and partaking in communion was a fundamental aspect of Christian life. The practice of communion originates from the biblical account of Jesus’ Last Supper, where he instructed his followers to consume bread and wine in remembrance of him. Indeed, many facets of medieval food culture can be understood through this religious lens, highlighting food’s role in connecting individuals, communities, and the earthly realm with the divine.
Of course, the vast majority of meals in the Middle Ages were not sacred rituals. And daily dinners extended beyond just bread and wine, though these were frequently important components of any meal. The availability of different crops and livestock varied significantly across regions, leading to distinct regional cuisines based on locally sourced ingredients. In a time before advanced food preservation techniques, people rarely consumed foods produced more than a week’s journey away, with the notable exception of salt and precious spices, which we will explore later. Furthermore, the time of year dramatically dictated the medieval diet. Today, we enjoy year-round access to seasonal fruits like apples and pears thanks to refrigeration and global imports. Medieval people lacked this convenience. Perishable foods had to be consumed quickly to avoid waste. Foods with longer shelf lives, such as grains stored in cool, dry granaries, were staples throughout the year, while fresh, easily spoiled items were seasonal delicacies. Regardless of location, the changing seasons were the primary influence on the daily diet in the Middle Ages.
Religious practices and seasonal availability intertwined significantly, especially for Christians during Lent. This period mandated abstaining from the flesh of any animal except fish as a form of sacrifice and devotion to Christ’s suffering. During Lent, protein sources shifted towards cheese, eggs, and legumes rather than meat. Fish became a dietary cornerstone for those near rivers and coasts, providing access to fresh seafood. Interestingly, there were surprising exceptions to these strict rules. The most famous example is the beaver, classified as a fish due to its aquatic lifestyle. Various bird species were similarly permitted during fasting periods, meaning that meat consumption during Lent wasn’t entirely absent.
Watermills were indispensable to medieval peasant life. These were the centers where cereal grains like spelt or wheat were ground into flour for baking bread. Records of watermills date back to Roman times, and they were a common feature of the medieval countryside, essential for processing staple foods. Medieval food, in fact, exhibited considerable diversity. Depending on geographical location, diets varied widely. For instance, in Mediterranean regions, olive oil was the primary cooking fat, whereas lard and butter were more prevalent in northern areas. Wine provides another excellent example of regional culinary diversity. Regional wine varieties were widespread across Europe. Even in Roman times, numerous grape varieties were cultivated in different regions using diverse methods, resulting in distinct wines. Wine, unlike most other medieval food and drink, had the advantage of aging well when properly stored, even improving with time. This, along with regional variations, made wine a major trade commodity. Southern European wines, particularly those from Gascony in France, were frequently shipped north and Gascony remains a renowned wine region today. Wine production, however, was not limited to these areas; it occurred wherever grapes could be cultivated. During the Medieval Warm Period, a climatic phase from approximately the 8th to 13th centuries, vineyards even dotted the landscape of southern England, producing local wines.
The spice trade was a significant aspect of medieval food and commerce. Spices were highly valued in Europe as they were not locally grown. Pepper, cloves, saffron, and other spices were imported from distant lands like India and Asia. Their long journey and exotic origins made them expensive, and the wealthy classes eagerly incorporated spices into their dishes, often to an extent that might seem excessive to modern palates. While spices were considered luxury goods, they were not entirely unattainable for those outside of royalty. Historical records show monasteries receiving tax exemptions on imported goods, including substantial quantities of spices. Monks, in general, enjoyed a relatively high standard of living and access to quality foods. Monasteries, often recipients of generous land donations, were quite wealthy. While this affluence sometimes drew criticism from more austere monastic orders, many monks, often from noble backgrounds, were content to maintain their accustomed diets while adhering to their religious vows.
Medieval people, particularly in monasteries, also cultivated various herbs and spices in gardens. Saffron, a highly prized spice, was grown extensively in Italy. Ultimately, social class was the most decisive factor determining access to food, or even whether food was available at all. Food scarcity and starvation were undeniable realities of medieval life, and famine was a constant threat for the lower classes. A peasant in the Middle Ages likely faced severe food shortages at some point in their life due to crop failures caused by weather, inadequate farming techniques, pests, plant diseases, or intentional destruction during warfare. In times of scarcity, peasants might resort to grinding acorns into flour for bread or making “horse bread,” a coarse loaf of dried peas, barley, and other less desirable ingredients.
However, in more prosperous times, the differences in food consumption between social classes are particularly striking. An interesting way to understand this is to consider current food trends related to wealth and then reverse them. Take bread, for example, a fundamental staple. Today, whole grain, brown breads are considered healthier and more expensive, while cheaper breads are often made from heavily processed white flour. In the Middle Ages, the nobility preferred finely milled, white wheat bread, while brown bread made with the whole grain was considered peasant food. The same principle applied to seafood. Fish like salmon and shellfish like lobster, now considered delicacies, were once seen as lower-class fare. Regarding meat, both the rich and poor consumed beef, pork, mutton, and other livestock. However, hunting game animals like deer, boar, and even bears was a privilege reserved exclusively for the nobility. This reversal of food values compared to today is perhaps the most surprising aspect of medieval cuisine. It highlights how much “refined taste” is a subjective concept, and it’s quite likely that medieval kings would be utterly amazed by a modern, inexpensive fast-food meal.
