What Does Kosher Mean For Food: A Detailed Guide

What Does Kosher Mean For Food? Kosher food adheres to Jewish dietary laws, ensuring fitness and propriety. FOODS.EDU.VN explores the depths of kosher principles and practical applications, offering insights into religious compliance, dietary guidelines, and food production integrity. Let’s unlock the world of kosher food and delve into Jewish dietary standards, Orthodox Rabbi guidance, and kosher dietary laws.

1. Understanding Kosher Dietary Laws

Kosher, derived from Hebrew, signifies “fit” or “proper” in relation to Jewish dietary laws. These laws, known as kashrut, dictate which foods are permissible and how they must be prepared and consumed. The fundamental rules originate from the Bible (Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 17). Over millennia, rabbinic scholars have interpreted and adapted these laws to modern contexts. Additionally, rabbinical bodies have implemented protective measures to maintain the integrity of kashrut.

1.1 The Essence of Kosher

The essence of keeping kosher involves adhering to a complex system of rules that govern not only which foods are allowed, but also how those foods are produced, processed, and prepared. This system touches every aspect of the food supply chain, from the farm to the table. At FOODS.EDU.VN, we understand the importance of these rules, and we strive to provide clear and accessible information to help everyone navigate the world of kosher food.

1.2 Kosher Dietary Rules and Regulations

Kosher laws are intricate and far-reaching. This guide introduces essential aspects of kashrut and its practical application. Given the complexities, consulting an Orthodox Rabbi is advisable when questions arise.

• Divine Will: While some perceive hygienic benefits, the primary rationale for observing kashrut is adherence to Divine Will, as expressed in the Torah.
• Modern Challenges: Industrialization and global food production complicate determining if a product is reliably kosher.
• Ingredient Transparency: Kosher status cannot always be determined by ingredient declarations due to processing methods, undisclosed processing aids, and variations in ingredient sources.

Understanding Kosher Symbols on Food Packaging

1.3 The Importance of Kosher Certification

Due to these complexities, purchasing products endorsed by a reliable kashrut agency is crucial. These agencies ensure adherence to kosher standards throughout the production process.

Kosher certification offers several benefits:

• Trust and Reliability: Provides assurance that products meet strict kosher standards.
• Market Access: Opens opportunities to cater to the kosher market, which values certified products.
• Quality Assurance: Often implies high standards in food safety and production practices.

For those seeking certification, resources are available to guide you through the process.

2. Core Kosher Food Laws

The main pillars of kashrut are the separation of meat and dairy, the permitted and forbidden animals, and the proper slaughtering and preparation methods. These rules ensure that kosher food is prepared in accordance with Jewish law and tradition.

2.1 Kosher Meat, Poultry, and Fish

The Torah specifies which animals are kosher and how they must be prepared. This includes guidelines for mammals, poultry, and fish.

2.1.1 Meat:

Kosher mammals must chew their cud (ruminants) and have cloven hooves. Examples include:

• Addax
• Antelope
• Bison
• Cow
• Deer
• Gazelle
• Giraffe
• Goat
• Ibex
• Sheep

2.1.2 Poultry:

The Torah lists 24 forbidden fowl species. Only birds with an established tradition of being kosher are consumed. In the United States, accepted poultry includes:

• Chicken
• Turkey
• Duck
• Goose

2.1.3 Fish:

Kosher fish must have fins and scales that are easily removable without damaging the skin. Shellfish are prohibited. To verify kosher status, fish scales must be visible to the consumer. Filleted or ground fish should be supervised or have a skin tab with scales attached.

Fish and meat may not be eaten together but can be consumed sequentially in the same meal, provided separate dishes and cutlery are used. Processed and smoked fish require reliable rabbinic supervision.

2.2 Meat and Poultry Processing

Proper processing of meat and poultry is crucial to maintaining kosher standards. This involves specific procedures for slaughter, inspection, excising, and koshering.

2.2.1 Shechita (Slaughter):

Shechita involves slaughtering animals in a prescribed manner. A shochet (trained kosher slaughterer) severs the trachea and esophagus with a sharp blade, ensuring instantaneous death without causing pain.

2.2.2 Bedika (Inspection):

After slaughter, a bodek (trained inspector) examines the internal organs for abnormalities that may render the animal non-kosher (treif). The lungs are carefully inspected for adhesions. This rigorous inspection ensures high quality standards that surpass government requirements.

2.2.3 Glatt Kosher:

“Glatt” means “smooth” and indicates meat from animals free of lung adhesions. It is increasingly used as a generic term implying unquestionable kosher status.

2.2.4 Nikkur (Excising):

Nikkur involves removing forbidden blood vessels, nerves, and fat lobes from kosher animal species. Specially trained individuals perform nikkur on beef, veal, and lamb.

2.2.5 Koshering Meat:

The Torah prohibits consuming animal blood. Kashering extracts blood through salting or broiling. Meat should not be placed in warm water before kashering, and cooked meat cannot be made kosher.

2.2.5.1 Salting Meat:

1. Soak meat for 30 minutes in cool water.
2. Drain excess water.
3. Thoroughly salt all surfaces with coarse salt.
4. Leave for one hour on an inclined or perforated surface.
5. Soak and wash to remove all salt.

Koshering must occur within 72 hours of slaughter to prevent blood congealing. Soaking the meat before the 72-hour limit grants an additional 72 hours to complete the salting process.

2.2.5.2 Broiling:

Broiling is an alternative kashering method, especially for liver due to its high blood content.

1. Wash liver and meat thoroughly to remove surface blood.
2. Slightly salt all sides.
3. Broil on a designated perforated grate over an open flame until the outer surface is dry and brown.
4. For liver, make slits before broiling.
5. Rinse after broiling.

2.2.6 The Kosher Butcher:

Butchers play a crucial role in distributing kosher meat. They must be individuals of integrity, and their stores should be under reliable rabbinic supervision.

2.2.7 Packaging:

Kosher meat must be supervised from slaughter to consumer. A plumba (metal tag with a kosher symbol) or tamper-proof packaging with a prominent kosher logo serves as an identifying seal.

2.2.8 Kosher Costs:

The extensive processing requirements of kosher meat and poultry, performed by specially trained individuals, result in higher labor costs, contributing to their increased price.

Example of Kosher Meat Packaging with Certification Seal

2.3 Kosher Caterers, Restaurants & Hotels

Caterers, restaurants, and hotels must be supervised by a reputable Orthodox Rabbinic authority. Assuming kashrut based on advertisements or statements alone is unreliable. “Vegetarian” or “dairy” establishments often require supervision due to the presence of fish, baked goods, cheese, shortenings, and oils. Kosher supervision ensures that even kosher raw ingredients are prepared on kosher equipment.

2.4 Meat and Milk in the Kosher Kitchen

The Torah prohibits cooking or eating meat and milk together, or deriving benefit from such combinations. To safeguard against this, rabbis extended the prohibition to disallow eating meat and dairy at the same meal or preparing them with the same utensils. A waiting period between consuming meat and dairy is also required, with the most common tradition being six hours.

Meat may be eaten after dairy, except for hard cheese aged six months or more, which requires the same waiting time as dairy after meat. Before eating meat after dairy, one must eat a solid food, drink a liquid, or rinse one’s mouth thoroughly and check the cleanliness of one’s hands.

2.4.1 Utensils:

A kosher kitchen must have separate sets of utensils for meat and dairy, including pots, pans, plates, and silverware.

2.4.2 Washing Dishes:

Ideally, two kitchen sinks should be used—one for meat and one for dairy. If using a single sink, dishes should be washed on separate racks to avoid contact with the sink. Ensure water does not rise to the rack level, and do not soak dishes in a sink used for both dairy and meat.

2.5 Eggs

Eggs from non-kosher birds or fish are not kosher. Caviar must come from kosher fish and requires supervision. Commercial liquid eggs also require supervision. Eggs from kosher fowl containing blood spots must be discarded.

2.6 Shortening and Oil

While ingredient labels must specify the type of shortening (vegetable or animal) and its source, kosher status can only be verified by reliable kosher certification, even for pure vegetable shortening. Manufacturers often process animal fats on common equipment, rendering vegetable oil non-kosher.

2.7 Emulsifiers

Emulsifiers, used in various food products, can be derived from animal or vegetable oil and require kosher supervision. They are commonly found in margarine, shortenings, cream fillings, and more.

2.8 Flavors

Flavors, whether artificial or natural, are components of nearly every product. Flavor production is complex and uses raw materials from various sources. Kosher-sensitive ingredients in flavors include fusel oil, glycerin, and castorium. As ingredient declarations rarely detail flavor components, kosher supervision is essential.

2.9 Fillings and Cremes

Fillings, cremes, and fudge bases must be certified kosher due to potential fats, emulsifiers, gelatin stabilizers, and flavors.

2.10 Breads, Rolls, Challah, Bagels, and Bialys

These staples present several kosher challenges and require kosher certification. Oils and shortenings, dough mixes, and divider oils may be non-kosher. Bakeries might prepare non-kosher products on the same equipment.

Producing bread with dairy ingredients is rabbinically prohibited, except for breads baked in unusual shapes or small loaves intended for single-meal consumption.

Jewish law requires setting aside a portion of batter or baked product for “challah.” This ritual is obligatory when the owner of the dough is Jewish and the dough is made from wheat, oats, rye, spelt, or barley. No challah separation is required for batters with less than 2.5 pounds of flour. If the batter contains at least 5 pounds of flour, a blessing is recited before separating challah.

If this mitzvah has not been performed in the bakery, it can be done at home by placing all baked goods in one room, opening all packages, and burning a small piece from any of the baked goods.

2.11 Cake, Pastries, and Doughnuts

These products commonly contain shortening, emulsifiers, flavors, and other kosher-sensitive ingredients, necessitating reliable supervision.

2.12 Dairy Products

2.12.1 Milk:

Rabbinic law requires supervision during milking to ensure the milk comes from a kosher animal. In the United States, Department of Agriculture regulations are considered sufficient for supervision. Some individuals, however, adhere to stricter standards and consume only milk produced under full-time supervision (cholov yisroel).

2.12.2 Cheese:

All cheeses, including hard and soft varieties, require kosher certification. Hard cheese production often uses rennet processed from unweaned calves. Kosher hard cheese uses microbial rennet derived from kosher sources. Rabbinic sages decreed that even without animal rennet, full-time supervision is required to guarantee kosher integrity. Hard cheese produced with kosher ingredients and a full-time supervisor is known as gevinat yisroel.

Soft cheeses may contain non-kosher cultures and flavors. Pasteurization processes also require equipment integrity checks.

Diverse Selection of Kosher Cheeses Available

2.13 Pareve Foods

“Pareve” describes food items that contain neither dairy nor meat ingredients and were not processed with heat on dairy or meat equipment. Pareve foods are neutral and may be eaten with either meat or dairy.

2.13.1 Labeling:

OU policy labels dairy or meat items as OU-D and OU Dairy or OU Meat, respectively. An item labeled OU without a suffix is assumed to be pareve. Checking the ingredient list is recommended, as OU-D omissions can occur.

2.13.2 Sherbets:

Products labeled “sherbet” or “fruit sherbet” must contain milk and are not pareve. Water ices may be either pareve or dairy, as indicated by the OU designation.

2.13.3 Margarine:

Margarine contains oils and glycerides and requires rabbinic certification. It may contain up to 12% dairy ingredients, leading to OU Dairy or pareve designations.

2.13.4 Non-Dairy Creamers:

Many non-dairy creamers are, in fact, dairy and bear an OU-D designation. Government regulations permit the “non-dairy” label if milk derivatives are used instead of whole milk.

2.14 Natural and Health Foods

Contrary to common belief, “natural” products are not inherently kosher. All non-kosher food items are natural, so the term has no bearing on kosher status.

2.15 Wines and Grape Products

All grape juice, grape wines, and brandies must be prepared under strict Orthodox Rabbinic supervision. Cooked kosher wine is labeled “mevushal“.

Grape jam, as well as all varieties of jam and jelly, require supervision due to potential non-kosher equipment usage and additives.

Grape jelly, produced from grape juice, can only be used if made from kosher grape juice under proper supervision.

Natural and artificial grape flavors must be kosher endorsed. Many grape flavors contain natural grape extracts but are labeled artificial due to the use of other flavoring additives.

Liqueurs require supervision due to flavorings and potential wine-derived alcohol bases.

2.16 Traveling

Kosher certified products are widely available in the United States, even in remote areas. However, obtaining reliably kosher products is more challenging in most foreign countries.

Travelers bringing frozen meals may use non-kosher ovens by covering the package with two layers of aluminum foil. Microwaves also require double wrapping. Kosher meals should be ordered in advance when traveling by plane, train, or ship. Verify the caterer’s and rabbinic certification seals are intact.

Any other loose foods served by the carrier are not included in the kosher endorsement unless they are sealed and bear a separate endorsement.

3. The Significance of Kosher Symbols

Kosher symbols, also known as hekhsherim, are marks placed on food packaging to indicate that a reliable kosher certifying agency has verified the product’s compliance with Jewish dietary laws. These symbols provide assurance to consumers seeking kosher products.

3.1 Recognizing Common Kosher Symbols

Familiarizing yourself with common kosher symbols is essential for identifying certified products. Some widely recognized symbols include:

• OU (Orthodox Union): One of the most recognized kosher symbols globally, indicating certification by the Orthodox Union.
• OK (Organized Kashruth Laboratories): Another prominent symbol, denoting certification by Organized Kashruth Laboratories.
• KOF-K: A widely respected symbol indicating certification by KOF-K Kosher Supervision.
• Star-K: Represents certification by the Star-K Kosher Certification.

Examples of Common Kosher Symbols Found on Food Products

3.2 Understanding Symbol Variations

Kosher symbols may come with additional letters or notations that provide further information about the product’s kosher status. For example:

• OU-D: Indicates that the product is dairy.
• OU-M: Indicates that the product is meat.
• OU-Pareve: Indicates that the product is pareve, containing neither meat nor dairy ingredients.

3.3 Verifying Kosher Status

When in doubt about a product’s kosher status, it is always best to check the certifying agency’s website or contact them directly for verification. This ensures that you are relying on accurate and up-to-date information. FOODS.EDU.VN always recommends cross-referencing certifications for peace of mind.

4. Kosher Certification Agencies: Ensuring Compliance

Kosher certification agencies play a vital role in ensuring that food products meet the stringent requirements of Jewish dietary laws. These agencies employ experts in kashrut who inspect food production facilities, review ingredients, and oversee the entire process to guarantee compliance.

4.1 Leading Kosher Certification Agencies

Several reputable kosher certification agencies operate worldwide. Some of the most well-known and respected include:

• Orthodox Union (OU): As mentioned earlier, the OU is one of the largest and most widely recognized kosher certification agencies globally.
• Organized Kashruth Laboratories (OK): The OK is another prominent agency known for its rigorous standards and widespread recognition.
• KOF-K Kosher Supervision: KOF-K is respected for its thorough inspections and commitment to maintaining high standards.
• Star-K Kosher Certification: Star-K is known for its expertise and dedication to providing reliable kosher certification.
• CRC Kosher: The Chicago Rabbinical Council (CRC) offers kosher certification services and is highly regarded in the industry.

4.2 The Certification Process

The kosher certification process typically involves several steps:

1. Application: The food manufacturer applies to a kosher certification agency and provides detailed information about their products and production processes.
2. Inspection: Representatives from the certification agency visit the production facility to inspect the equipment, ingredients, and processes.
3. Review: The agency reviews the information gathered during the inspection to determine if the products meet kosher requirements.
4. Contract: If the products meet kosher standards, the agency and the manufacturer enter into a contract outlining the terms of certification.
5. Ongoing Monitoring: The agency conducts periodic inspections to ensure ongoing compliance with kosher standards.
6. Certification: Upon successful completion of the process, the agency grants kosher certification and allows the manufacturer to display the agency’s kosher symbol on their products.

A Kosher Inspector Reviewing a Food Production Facility

4.3 Choosing a Certification Agency

When selecting a kosher certification agency, consider factors such as:

• Reputation: Choose an agency with a strong reputation for integrity and reliability.
• Recognition: Select an agency whose symbol is widely recognized and respected by kosher consumers.
• Expertise: Opt for an agency with experienced personnel who understand the complexities of food production and kashrut.
• Cost: Compare the fees and services offered by different agencies to find one that fits your budget.

5. Kosher in the Modern World: Trends and Innovations

As the demand for kosher food continues to grow globally, the industry is witnessing exciting trends and innovations. These advancements make kosher food more accessible, diverse, and appealing to a wider range of consumers.

5.1 The Rise of Kosher-Friendly Products

Many mainstream food manufacturers are now offering kosher-certified versions of their popular products to cater to the growing kosher market. This includes a wide variety of items, from snacks and beverages to frozen meals and condiments.

5.2 Kosher Meal Delivery Services

Kosher meal delivery services are becoming increasingly popular, offering convenient and nutritious options for individuals and families who want to enjoy kosher meals without the hassle of cooking. These services provide pre-prepared kosher meals that are delivered directly to your door.

5.3 Innovative Kosher Cuisine

Kosher chefs and food innovators are pushing the boundaries of kosher cuisine, creating exciting and flavorful dishes that blend traditional Jewish flavors with modern culinary techniques. This includes gourmet kosher restaurants, kosher food trucks, and innovative kosher catering services.

5.4 Plant-Based Kosher Options

With the growing popularity of plant-based diets, there is an increasing demand for kosher vegan and vegetarian options. Food manufacturers and restaurants are responding by developing innovative plant-based kosher products that cater to this market.

A Delicious Plant-Based Kosher Meal

5.5 The Impact of Technology on Kosher Observance

Technology is also playing a role in facilitating kosher observance. There are now apps and websites that provide information on kosher restaurants, products, and certification agencies, making it easier for consumers to find and verify kosher options.

6. Common Misconceptions About Kosher Food

Despite its growing popularity, several misconceptions about kosher food persist. Addressing these misconceptions is essential to promote a better understanding of kashrut.

6.1 “Kosher Food is Blessed by a Rabbi”

This is a common misconception. While rabbis are involved in the kosher certification process, they do not bless individual food items. Kosher certification focuses on ensuring that food production processes comply with Jewish dietary laws.

6.2 “Kosher Food is Healthier”

While kosher food may adhere to high standards of cleanliness and quality, it is not inherently healthier than non-kosher food. Kosher laws primarily focus on religious compliance, not nutritional value.

6.3 “Kosher Food is Only for Jewish People”

Kosher food is not exclusively for Jewish people. Many individuals who are not Jewish choose to consume kosher food for various reasons, including concerns about food safety, quality, and ethical production practices.

6.4 “Kosher Certification is Expensive”

The cost of kosher certification varies depending on factors such as the size and complexity of the food production facility. While there are costs associated with certification, many manufacturers find that the benefits, such as access to the kosher market and enhanced brand reputation, outweigh the expenses.

6.5 “All Vegetarian Food is Kosher”

Not all vegetarian food is kosher. While vegetarian food does not contain meat, it may still contain non-kosher ingredients such as dairy or eggs from non-kosher animals. Additionally, vegetarian food must be prepared on kosher equipment to be considered kosher.

7. The Broader Implications of Kosher Observance

Kosher observance extends beyond dietary laws and has broader implications for ethical, social, and environmental practices.

7.1 Ethical Considerations

Kashrut emphasizes ethical treatment of animals. Shechita, the kosher slaughtering method, aims to minimize animal suffering.

7.2 Social Responsibility

Kosher certification can encourage manufacturers to adopt socially responsible practices, such as fair labor standards and sustainable sourcing.

7.3 Environmental Impact

Some kosher organizations promote environmentally friendly practices in food production, such as reducing waste and conserving resources.

7.4 Transparency and Traceability

Kosher certification enhances transparency and traceability in the food supply chain, allowing consumers to make informed choices about the products they purchase.

8. How to Incorporate Kosher Food Into Your Diet

Incorporating kosher food into your diet can be a rewarding experience, whether you are Jewish or not. Here are some tips for getting started:

8.1 Start Small

Begin by incorporating a few kosher items into your regular grocery shopping routine. This could include kosher-certified snacks, beverages, or condiments.

8.2 Read Labels Carefully

Pay close attention to food labels and look for kosher symbols from reputable certification agencies. This will help you identify products that meet kosher standards.

8.3 Explore Kosher Recipes

Discover delicious kosher recipes online or in cookbooks. Experiment with different flavors and cuisines to expand your kosher culinary repertoire.

8.4 Support Kosher Businesses

Patronize kosher restaurants, bakeries, and grocery stores in your community. This will help support local businesses that adhere to kosher standards.

8.5 Ask Questions

Don’t hesitate to ask questions about kosher food and kashrut. Consult with knowledgeable individuals such as rabbis, kosher food experts, or representatives from kosher certification agencies.

9. Resources for Learning More About Kosher Food

Numerous resources are available for those who want to learn more about kosher food and kashrut.

9.1 Websites

• FOODS.EDU.VN: Your go-to source for comprehensive information on kosher food, recipes, and more.
• OU Kosher: The Orthodox Union’s kosher website offers a wealth of information on kosher certification, products, and dietary laws.
• KOF-K Kosher Supervision: The KOF-K website provides information on kosher certification and kosher-related topics.
• Star-K Kosher Certification: The Star-K website offers resources on kosher certification and kosher living.

9.2 Books

• “Kashrut: A Comprehensive Background and Source Guide” by Rabbi Zushe Blech: A comprehensive guide to kashrut covering all aspects of Jewish dietary laws.
• “The Guide to Kosher” by Rabbi Yitzchak Levy: A practical guide to understanding and observing kosher laws in the modern world.
• “Kosher Cooking for Beginners” by Leah Schapira: A cookbook with easy-to-follow kosher recipes for novice cooks.

9.3 Organizations

• Orthodox Union (OU): A leading kosher certification agency and resource for kosher information.
• Kosher Consumers Union: An organization that advocates for kosher consumers and promotes kosher awareness.

10. The Future of Kosher Food

The future of kosher food looks bright, with continued growth, innovation, and accessibility. As consumer awareness of kosher food increases, the industry is poised to expand and evolve.

10.1 Increased Demand

The demand for kosher food is expected to continue growing globally, driven by factors such as:

• Growing Jewish population: The Jewish population worldwide is increasing, leading to a greater demand for kosher products.
• Increased consumer awareness: More consumers are becoming aware of kosher food and its benefits, regardless of their religious background.
• Expanding product availability: The availability of kosher products is increasing, making it easier for consumers to incorporate kosher food into their diets.

10.2 Technological Advancements

Technological advancements will continue to shape the kosher food industry. This includes innovations in food production, packaging, and distribution that make kosher food more efficient, sustainable, and accessible.

10.3 Sustainability and Ethical Sourcing

Sustainability and ethical sourcing will become increasingly important in the kosher food industry. Consumers will demand kosher products that are produced in an environmentally friendly and socially responsible manner.

10.4 Globalization

Globalization will continue to drive the growth of the kosher food industry. As the world becomes more interconnected, kosher products will become more widely available in diverse markets.

In conclusion, what does kosher mean for food? It’s a commitment to dietary laws rooted in tradition, ethics, and quality. Whether you’re a seasoned kosher observer or simply curious, FOODS.EDU.VN is your trusted guide to navigating the fascinating world of kashrut.

Want to explore more about kosher food and discover delicious recipes? Visit FOODS.EDU.VN today. Need help with kosher certification? Contact us at 1946 Campus Dr, Hyde Park, NY 12538, United States or Whatsapp: +1 845-452-9600. Let FOODS.EDU.VN be your culinary companion.

FAQ About Kosher Food

1. What does “kosher” mean?
   “Kosher” means fit or proper, referring to food that adheres to Jewish dietary laws.

2. What are the main kosher food laws?
   The main laws include separating meat and dairy, consuming only permitted animals, and adhering to proper slaughtering and preparation methods.

3. How can I identify kosher products?
   Look for kosher symbols (hekhsherim) from reputable certification agencies on food packaging.

4. Is kosher food only for Jewish people?
   No, kosher food is consumed by individuals of various backgrounds for reasons such as food safety, quality, and ethical considerations.

5. What is kosher certification?
   Kosher certification is a process by which a kosher agency verifies that a food product complies with Jewish dietary laws.

6. What are some common kosher symbols?
   Common symbols include OU (Orthodox Union), OK (Organized Kashruth Laboratories), KOF-K, and Star-K.

7. What is “pareve”?
   “Pareve” refers to food items that contain neither dairy nor meat ingredients and were not processed on dairy or meat equipment.

8. What is “shechita”?
   “Shechita” is the kosher method of slaughtering animals, which aims to minimize animal suffering.

9. Are all vegetarian foods kosher?
   No, not all vegetarian foods are kosher. Vegetarian foods must still comply with kosher laws, such as avoiding dairy when prepared with meat.

10. Where can I find more information about kosher food?
    You can find more information on foods.edu.vn, OU Kosher, and other kosher certification agencies’ websites.